Rules and Laws in English

All over the world, different countries have different rules and regulations. You can drink a lot of alcohol in Ireland, but you can’t drink any alcohol in most Muslim countries. You should drive on the left of the road in some countries, but you should drive on the right in most countries. Women may wear shorts and a t-shirt in some hot countries, but they must completely cover their bodies in other hot countries.

English-speaking countries have different rules too. They also have different attitudes: some countries are strict (making sure you follow all of their rules) but other countries are relaxed.
However, all English speakers use the same language to describe laws and rules.
It is extremely important to understand this language: if you misunderstand a rule you could lose money  or miss an event. (For example, if a concert ticket says “You mustn’t arrive after 8.30pm”, what happens if you arrive at 9 o’clock?) Even worse, if you misunderstand a law you could go to jail! (For example, can you understand the sentence, “Consumption of alcohol is prohibited”?)

This blog could save your life! We’ll begin at an ELEMENTARY level, and move along to UPPER-INTERMEDIATE and ADVANCED language.

MODAL VERBS
In the first paragraph of this blog we used many modal verbs like can, should, may and must. To talk about rules and laws we also use the modal verbs mustn’t, have to and don’t have to.
Our Facebook page recently quizzed English42 fans on how to use modal verbs...

Post by English42.

[ELEMENTARY] THINGS TO REMEMBER ABOUT MODAL VERBS
1. Modal verbs don’t change when the person changes. (I can speak English; You can speak English; He/She can speak English...) 

2. A bare-infinitive verb always comes after a modal verb. (A bare-infinitive verb is a verb, without the word “to”, which is unchanged: go [not “to go”, “going” or “goes”], eat [not “to eat”, “eating” or “eats”]. So these sentences are all wrong:

a) He can to go to Italy now. (CORRECT: He can go to Italy now.)

b) You should staying at home tonight. (CORRECT: You should stay at home tonight.)

c) She must waits at the station. (CORRECT: She must wait at the train station.)

3. Each modal verb has a unique meaning. Let’s look at these now...

[ELEMENTARY] MODAL VERBS FOR RULES & LAWS

In English, we use many different modal verbs to describe laws and rules – just look at the top of this page! Some modal verbs have other meanings too:

CAN: “You can leave school at 4 o’clock.” This sentence describes a school rule. If we change the sentence to a negative, it also describes a rule: “You can’t leave the school before 4 o’clock.” Also, the two sentences have more or less the same meaning. But the sentence “He can sing” doesn’t describe a rule (it describes an ability)

SHOULD: “In Brazil, you should drive on the right of the road.” is another way to describe a law. So is the sentence, “In Brazil, you shouldn’t drive on the left of the road.” Again, the two sentences have more or less the same meaning. But the meaning is different if you say the sentence, “You should get a new job.” This is advice.

MAY NOT: “Tourists may not stay in the USA for more than 90 days.” This sentence expresses a rule. But the opposite, “Tourists may stay in the USA for under 90 days” doesn’t exactly express a rule: here, we are talking about something which you can do. The meaning changes with a sentence like, “Susan may come to the office tomorrow.” This describes a possibility.

[INTERMEDIATE] FORMAL MODAL VERBS FOR RULES & LAWS

Other modal verbs are always used for rules and laws. You will see this language in formal texts about rules/laws.

MUST & HAVE TO / HAS TO: These are both positive ways to describe a rule or law. [see NOTE1]

Basically, the message is very strong: “do this thing. If you don’t do this thing, you will be in trouble.” You often see these verbs on signs, rule-books and laws in English-speaking countries.
HAVE TO isn’t actually a modal verb. It’s different because you need to change it depending on the person. But it follows the other rules of modal verbs.

Here are some examples:

1. You must arrive at the airport one hour before you fly.
2. You have to drive slowly near schools.
3. He has to apply for a visa before he can study in the UK.
4. We must leave the hotel room before 11am.

[NOTE1: some English speakers believe that “must” is used for rules and “have to” is used for laws. This isn’t always true. But often you’ll see a sign in a school (for example) which says, “You must pay your fee before you join the course”, and you’ll often see a law which says “Drivers have to stay on the right of the road.”]

MUST NOT (MUSTN’T): This is the negative way to describe a rule or law – it is the opposite of both MUST and HAVE TO.
Basically, the message is very strong: “don’t do this thing. If you do this thing, you will be in trouble.” You often see this modal verb on signs, rule-books and laws in English-speaking countries.
Here are some examples:

1. You must not smoke on an airplane.
2. You must not murder anyone.
3. You must not drink alcohol and drive a car.4

DON’T/DOESN’T HAVE TO: This is the negative way to describe something you can do – but it isn’t a rule. It is different in meaning to the other 3 modal verbs here. Also, you don’t often see this modal verb on signs, rule-books and laws in English-speaking countries. You will hear them in conversation.

Some examples are:

1. [In a school] You don’t have to stay after 4pm. (but you can stay if you want to, and you must stay before 4pm)
2. [In an airport] You don’t have to arrive 3 hours before your flight. (but you can if you want to, and you must arrive 1 hour before your flight)
3. [In an office] He doesn’t have to work after 5pm. (but he can if he wants to, and he must work before 5pm)

This table may help you to understand these modal verbs:

DO THIS	DON'T DO THIS	YOUR CHOICE
must	mustn’t	don’t have to
have to

Look again at the Facebook quiz which we showed earlier. In the comments you will find the answers. Can you understand each answer? Do you see why some sentences are correct and others are completely incorrect?

ADJECTIVES & PASSIVES

[UPPER-INTERMEDIATE+] ADJECTIVES FOR RULES & LAWS

In a second Facebook quiz, we asked you to choose the best adjective to describe rules. Here’s the quiz:

Post by English42.

We can express rules and laws without modal verbs, by using these three words:

compulsory

prohibited

allowed

It’s important to understand the unique meaning of each adjective: you see these in government documents, in signs and in rule-books more often than you see the modal verbs.

allowed is related to the modal verbs can or may. It means, basically, that you can or may do something – but you don’t have to.
Let’s look at an annoying sign which all of us have probably seen in airports.

HOW TO USE allowed: According to this sign, you can bring liquids which are under 100ml. “Allowed” can be used in 2 ways: as an adjective, and as a passive part-participle verb...

1. (as an adjective) Liquids which are under 100ml are allowed.
OR
2. (as a passive)You are allowed to bring liquids which are under 100ml.

Let’s look at the structure of these sentences, and some other examples.

1. (as an adjective)
[noun]	[“to be”]	[adjective]	[optional information]
Liquids which are under 100ml	are	allowed.
Smoking	is	allowed	in this area.
Driving a car	is	allowed	if you have a bus driver’s license.

2. (as a passive)
[subject]	passive		[infinitive verb]	[optional information]
You	are	allowed	to bring	liquids which are under 100ml.
Students	are	allowed	to leave	after 4pm.
New EU countries	will be	allowed	to trade	with Germany.

REMEMBER!! Using “It is allowed” is not allowed.
We don’t use the structure “It is allowed to smoke.” We will use this structure with the following two words, but it’s a big mistake to use it with “allow”.

A synonym for “allowed” – a word which has the same meaning – is the word permitted. It can be used in a sentence in exactly the same 2 ways. (e.g. “Smoking is permitted in this area”, “Students are permitted to leave.”)

compulsory is related to the modal verbs can or may. It means, basically, “do this. If you don’t do this, you’ll be in trouble (or you can’t continue).”

After you have taken care of your liquids at the airport, you go through security.

What do you do next? You go through a metal detector. Before you go through, however, you must take off your shoes and remove your belt. Then you must walk through the metal detector.

HOW TO USE compulsory: So, how would English speakers describe this? There are 2 ways:

1. (as an adjective which describes the action/item) Your boarding pass is compulsory.
OR
2. (as an adjective which describes a verb) It is compulsory to remove your shoes.

Study the structure of these sentences, and some other examples.

1. (as an adjective which describes the action/item)
[noun]	[“to be”]	[adjective]	[optional information]
Your boarding pass	is	compulsory	if you want to go to the Departure gate.
Paying taxes	is	compulsory.
Driving on the right	is	compulsory	in most countries.

2. (as an adjective which describes a verb)
“It is compulsory”	[infinitive verb]	[optional/additional information]
It is compulsory	to remove	your shoes
It is compulsory	to take	off your belt.
It is compulsory	to drive	on the left in the UK and Ireland.

Some synonyms for “compulsory” are necessary and essential. These are used in a sentence in the same 2 ways as “compulsory”. (e.g. “Your boarding pass is necessary.” “It is necessary to take off your belt.”)
Another synonym for “compulsory” is required. This can only be used in a sentence as an adjective which describes the action/item). (e.g. “Driving on the right is required.”)

prohibited is related to the modal verbs mustn’t. It means, basically, “don’t do this. If you do this, you’ll be in trouble (or you can’t continue).”
When you get on the plane, there are certain items which you must not have in your bag. Usually, you see a sign like this at the check-in desk:

HOW TO USE prohibited: The sign may also have text which uses the word “prohibited”:

1. (as an adjective which describes the action/item) Guns are prohibited.

1. (as an adjective which describes the action/item)
[noun]	[“to be”]	[adjective]	[optional information]
Guns	are	prohibited	on the airplane.
Smoking	is	prohibited	in most hospitals.
Driving on the right	is	prohibited	In the UK and Ireland.

It’s not completely wrong to say “It is prohibited to smoke in the hospital”. An English-speaker will understand this – but it doesn’t sound very natural.

Some synonyms for “prohibited” are not allowed, not permitted, barred, banned and forbidden. These are all used in a sentence in the same way as “prohibited”. (e.g. “Smoking is not allowed in most hospitals.” “Guns are forbidden on the airplane.”)
Forbidden can also be used in a sentence as an adjective which describes a verb. (e.g. “It is forbidden to smoke.”)

It’s easy to practice the language we’ve learned here. Simply look at any roadsigns in your country and try to say them in English, using a modal verb or an adjective. You could translate the rules of your school or workplace, or you could study the rules and laws of an English-speaking country.
In the week which begins 27 January, we’ll post a final quiz on our Facebook page, so keep looking and keep practicing! Good luck!

Expressing the future (Advanced)

On our Facebook page today, we discussed New Year’s Resolutions and gave a little future-tense quiz.

Post by English42.

And here are the answers! How well did you do?

I’m going to quit smoking this year. I feel very strongly about this plan: smoking is expensive, my girlfriend hates it, and I need to be healthier. Now that I think about it I’ll need to give up coffee and alcohol too, because when I drink them I always feel like having a cigarette. But it should be easy too: no one is having any parties or going out in January, so there are no planned social events. By December 31^st 2014, I expect to have been cigarette-free for one year! Hopefully, the price of cigarettes will rise in the next 12 months, making it easier for me to quit.

Advanced students should get all of the answers correct, and may also notice that the words in bold generally define the sentences (especially the tenses of the sentences) where they lie. In another post, we discuss will, going to and the present continuous, which we use to express the future. 

Of course, there are more than 3 ways to express the future, and a fluent English speaker knows how to use these alternative expressions.

Generally speaking, an intermediate student knows the difference between “will”, “going to” and the present continuous; an upper-intermediate student will (mostly) be able to use them correctly. But sometimes these three forms aren’t good enough: we need to be more specific about how possible something is, or our feelings about a future event. A student who can use these alternative expressions correctly is moving towards proficiency in English.

EXPRESSING THE FUTURE: THE FUTURE PERFECT FORM
First of all, let’s take a look at one more tense: the future perfect.

By June, the weather will have improved.

This tense is slightly different to the tenses above: it gives a future time and a future event – but the event takes place before that time. Take another look at the example. It’s basically a prediction that the weather will get better. Maybe this will happen in April or May – but definitely before June. So, when we arrive at that time (June) we can say, in the present perfect tense: “The weather has improved.” But we’re not in June yet, and the weather hasn’t improved – so we must use the future form: “the weather will have improved.”

Here are some more examples:

• I don’t know exactly what time the football match starts at, but it will have begun by 8pm.
• She will have quit her job by Christmas. (maybe she’ll do this in November or December)
• The streetlights will have come on by 9 o’clock.

This is a very difficult sentence to build, so let’s take a look at how to use the future perfect form in a sentence:

FUTURE PERFECT
POSITIVE	[subject] “will” “have”+ [past participle verb] (rest of sentence, including time) I will have finished my homework by 5pm.
NEGATIVE	[subject] “won’t” “have”+ [past participle verb] (rest of sentence, including time) He won’t have saved enough money by May.
QUESTION	“Will” [subject] “have” + [past participle verb] (rest of sentence, including time) Will the weather have improved by June?

 

ACTIVITY IDEA:
Before we continue, write 2 or 3 sentences about your upcoming year, in the future perfect form.

EXPRESSING THE FUTURE: ALTERNATIVE EXPRESSIONS
Now, let’s look at some new ways to express future events. Here are 6 alternative expressions. For each expression, there are three sentences. Only one of the 3 sentences is correct. Take some time and take a note of which sentences you think are the correct ones.

PLAN	HOPE
1. I plan to finishing the project by Friday.	1. I hope I can go on a long holiday this summer.
2. I plan to finish the project by Friday.	2. I hope I will be able to go on a long holiday this summer.
3. I plan I’ll finish the project by Friday.	3. I hope I’m going to be able to go on a long holiday this summer.
HOPEFULLY	PROBABLY
1. Hopefully, the weather is nice tomorrow.	1. Probably, she will arrive next week.
2. Hopefully, the weather will be nice tomorrow.	2. She will arrive next week, probably.
3. Hopefully, the weather is going to be nice tomorrow.	3. She will probably arrive next week.
EXPECT	DECIDED
1. I expect the operation to take 5 hours.	1. He’s decided to bringing his laptop on his trip.
2. I expect the operation is taking 5 hours.	2. He’s decided to bring his laptop on his trip.
3. I expect the operation will take 5 hours.	3. He’s decided if he’ll bring his laptop on his trip.

Have you written your answers down? In a moment, we’ll see the correct answers and we’ll look at the correct use of each expression.
Firstly, you may notice that the future tense is not always used, and the rules about will, going to and the present continuous don’t apply any longer. Here we are talking about plans, hopes, expectations – so the correct verb form is more important.

Let’s look at each expression.

Plan

MEANING: A future event, planned personally

VERB FORM: infinitive (verb with “to”)

USAGE: always follow “plan” with the verb

EXAMPLES: “I plan to see her soon.” / “I’m not planning to stay much longer.”

Hope

MEANING: a desired future event

VERB FORM: use either with the present form or with the infinitive

USAGE: never use with the future forms

EXAMPLES: “He hopes to go on safari next year.” / “We hope you pass your exams!”

Hopefully

MEANING: to express a hope about the future. The future event is not certain, but desired.

VERB FORM: use with will

USAGE: Place at the start of a sentence

EXAMPLES: “Hopefully, she’ll wait for us even though we’re late.” / “Hopefully, the rain won’t continue for much longer.”

  

Probably

MEANING: an event which is almost 100% certain

VERB FORM: any future form.

USAGE: use after will / after “to be” (with going to and present continuous) but with negative sentences use before will / before “to be”

EXAMPLES: “It will probably take a long time to get to Barcelona.” / “He probably isn’t going to quit his job.”

  

Expect

MEANING: an event which a person anticipates or plans – this may not be true in reality

VERB FORM: infinitive

USAGE: always follow expect with the object; conjugate expect if the subject is “he”, “she” or “it”

EXAMPLES: “I expect the bus to arrive soon.” / “We don’t expect the delay to be for very long.”

Decide

MEANING: a personal plan for a future event

VERB FORM: infinitive

USAGE: Always follow decide with the verb. If it’s a negative sentence, follow it with “if”+[future tense sentence]

EXAMPLES: “He hasn’t decided if he’ll go out.” / “I’ve decided to break up with her.”

 


ACTIVITY IDEA 1:
Write a short text (around 100-150 words) expressing your New Year's Resolutions, or your hopes, expectations and plans for the next year of your life.

ACTIVITY IDEA 2:
Business students! Check out our mission statements blog on Business42.